Chalcolithic period in india refers to the period from 2800 BCE to 700 BCEÂ but globally it refers to the period from 3000 BCE to 500 BCE. It refers to the cultural pattern in which stone and copper both were used simultaneously by humans. Before this phase, humans did not know about the metal technology and they continued using the equipment made from the stone for their different daily activities.
They first started using copper metal in their culture and later they moved to using different metals for availability and flexibility. The term “Chalcolithic” originates from the fusion of two Greek words, “khalkos,” meaning “copper,” and “lÃthos,” signifying “stone.” In this period, we see numerous changes in human civilization from the Stone Age, e.g. Social organizations and religious beliefs, wheel-made pottery, human settlements, etc.
Chalcolithic period in india was also known as the Copper Age and also called the bridging gap of the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. With the help of the table below, we can observe the differences and connections of the Chalcolithic period in india with the Neolithic and Bronze Age. The timeline of this period witnessed the vedic period and indus valley civilization also. Chalcolithic period in india is considered to be a part of the prehistoric period due to its emergence before the art of writing evolved.Â
| Difference from Neolithic and Bronge Ages | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Aspects | Neolithic Age | Chalcolithic Age | Bronge Age |
| Technical Progress | Introduction of agriculture and domestication of animals. Use of stone tools, pottery, and basic implements. | Simultaneous use of stone and copper tools. Introduction of advanced tools and weapons made of copper. | Emergence of metalworking, specifically bronze. Introduction of alloy technology. Metal tools and weapons become common. |
| Economic Practices | Shift from a nomadic lifestyle to settled agriculture. Domestication of animals for various purposes. | Reliance on hunting, herding, and farming for sustenance. Beginnings of metalworking, enhancing hunting and farming activities. | Further development of agriculture with the use of metal tools. Emergence of trade networks and urban centers. |
| Habitation | Transition from mobile or semi-nomadic lifestyles to sedentary communities. Simple mud-brick houses. | Evolution of settlements with mud structures using sun-dried mud bricks. Introduction of organized village clusters. | Establishment of urban centers with advanced infrastructure. Use of baked bricks in construction. Development of fortified cities. |
| Pottery | Introduction of rudimentary pottery for storage and cooking. | Wheel-made pottery becomes prevalent. General types include red and black ware, Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP). | Advanced pottery techniques. Distinctive pottery styles, often with intricate designs. |
| Metal Usage | Limited or no metal usage initially. Stone and bone tools dominate. | Introduction of copper tools, coexisting with stone tools. | Significant use of bronze for tools, weapons, and ornaments. Alloy technology becomes prevalent. |
| Social Organization | Emergence of settled communities with basic social structures. | Evolution of social structures, leadership roles, and diversified occupations. | Establishment of complex social hierarchies. Emergence of kingship and specialized classes. Development of administrative systems.
|
| Cultural Classification | Neolithic cultures varied across regions. | Various Chalcolithic cultures with distinct characteristics. | Bronze Age marked by specific cultures and urban centers. Distinctive regional variations. |
| Trade and Interaction | Limited trade, primarily local exchanges. | Interactions between Chalcolithic cultures. Beginnings of regional trade networks. | Flourishing long-distance trade networks. Cultural exchanges and interactions between different regions. |
Major Features of Chalcolithic Period in India
Chalcolithic period in india had different traits and features in various places, and the shift to the Bronze Age happened at different times worldwide. Archaeologists use findings like tools and artefacts to learn about their daily lives, but experts are still studying and discussing many details about this period. However, some major features are discussed through the below points.
1. Usage of Stone and Copper tools
The usage of stone and copper for different types of equipment is one of the major features of chalcolithic period in india. Though copper objects were limited in number on all the sites it was present there with the stone tools including microliths. But in one of the sites named Ahar, a large number of copper tools were found. That’s why it was also known as Tambawati. The argument in favor of this is the closeness of this site to the Khetri region of Rajasthan which was known for copper.
2. Bone tools
It was mainly discovered in eastern sites of chalcolithic period in india and it was an essential part of the culture. It shows the skill of these ancient societies. There were multiple types of bone tools were found and one of those are, points or awls which serve different purposes like points could be used as arrowheads or tips for spears, while awls were versatile tools for activities like sewing, leatherworking, and woodworking. Other tools are needles, harpoons and fish hooks, ornaments and personal items, spatulas and scrappers, perforators, combs and dice, and gaming pieces.
3. Hunting, Herding and Farming
Chalcolithic period in india was mainly dependent on hunting, herding, and farming for food. Apart from this, there is evidence of phishing as well. They hunted many animals like deer, wild boar, aurochs, and smaller mammals and provided meat to their community. While stone tools were still prevalent, copper tools became more common for hunting processes.
These tools, such as arrowheads and spear points, were more durable and effective than their stone counterparts.In this period, humans started doing the domestication of animals also, because of controlled and sustainable sources of food, as well as other resources like milk, wool, and hides.
Farming also played an important role in this period, they started cultivating a variety of crops including wheat, barley, legumes, and other domesticated plants. They facilitated agriculture practices through the use of stone and copper tools, including plows, sickles, and grinding stones. The introduction of metal tools increased efficiency in farming activities. Central and western Chalcolithic sites predominantly cultivated wheat and barley, while in the eastern regions, rice emerged as the primary crop.
4. Mud Structures for Settlements
Before this period, there is no evidence of human settlements making their houses. Before this period, They were either living without homes or in the stone caves. In this period, they started living in a house made up of mud along with other locally available organic materials such as reeds and thatch. Mud structures were often constructed using a combination of sun-dried mud bricks and organic materials.
Houses of Chalcolithic period in india were typically small, with one or more rooms. The use of mud bricks allowed for the construction of simple rectangular or square-shaped structures. These houses were often arranged in clusters within villages. Copper tools increased the efficiency of cutting and shaping of mud bricks, enhancing the overall construction process. The use of mud structures during Chalcolithic period in india reflects the transition from mobile or semi-nomadic lifestyles to more sedentary and organized communities.
5. Wheel-Made Pottery
The pottery of chalcolithic period in india showed a variety, but the general type of pottery was red and black ware (inside black and outside red). Numerous pottery items in black and crimson hues were crafted during this era, with the prevalent use of Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP) as well.
6. Social Organizations and Religious Belief
Chalcolithic period in india was marked by social organizations and certain specific beliefs including burial practices. The culture evolved with leadership roles and diversified occupations. Mostly people buried the dead on the floors of their houses in the north-south direction with pots and copper objects. Somewhere children are buried with the neckless in their necks and on some sites people are buried with bangles and axes. The type of burial practices were unique and the beliefs behind it could be the thinking of using the grave goods by the dead ones in paradise.
Categories of Chalcolithic Period in India
The chalcolithic period in india is classified into two major parts.
- Eastern Chalcolithic Culture: It developed in UP, Bihar and West Bengal. These regions were characterized by plenty of rainfall and alluvial soil. It was characterized by Rice cultivation. In this part, a large number of bone tools were found apart from stone tools and copper tools.
- Western and Central Indian Chalcolithic Culture: It represented semi-arid regions characterized by lesser rainfall and black soil region. The agricultural pattern of this part was barley-based agriculture.
Major Sites of Chalcolithic Period in India
All across the Indian subcontinent, various chalcolithic sites have been discovered, there are also some major sites across them below we have discussed about them.
1. Ganeshwar: Ganeshwar, situated in Neem Ka Thana district of Rajasthan, is an archaeological site revealing a 4,000-year-old civilization. In 1977, researchers found copper tools like arrowheads and bangles. There were three time periods:
- Period 1 (3800 BCE) had people hunting and gathering with simple tools.
- Period II (2800 BCE) was when they started using copper and clay for making things.
- In Period III (2000 BCE), they made various pottery and copper items.
Ganeshwar supplied copper to the Indus Valley civilization. People there did farming and hunting, but they didn’t build big cities. They were good at making copper things, but they didn’t turn into a city. They got their copper from the nearby Aravalli Range.
2. Ahar-Banas: This culture was developed in the Mewar Region of Rajasthan and Gujrat. The name is based on the Ahar and the Banas River, where significant archaeological findings have been made. The culture was primarily centered in the river valleys of Ahar and Banas. The chronological framework of this is 2100-1500 BCE.
3. Savalda: This culture was developed in the Tapi region of Maharashtra. It is believed to have developed through interactions between Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra and Harappan people in Saurashtra. In Daimabad, which was part of the Savalda culture, people made pottery using a wheel. The village in Daimabad was protected by a wall. They made houses with mud. To make the floors, they pressed mud and alluvium together.
4. Kayatha: Kayatha is a type of site or representative site. This developed in the Tarana Tahsil, on the Banks of the Choti-kali Sindh river of Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh (2000-1800 BCE). V. S. Vakankar discovered this culture in 1964, dating back to 4000 years old.
5. Eastern region: Eastern chalcolithic culture emerged in Eastern parts of India. i.e., in UP, Bihar, and West Bengal (1900-1200 BCE) These cultures in the eastern region demonstrate a variety of local adaptations and interactions during the Chalcolithic period. They engaged in agriculture, used copper tools, and had distinctive pottery styles. While each culture had its unique characteristics, they collectively contributed to the broader cultural mosaic of the chalcolithic period in india.
6. Malwa region: Chalcolithic culture after the name of the region developed in Malwa of Central India (1700- 1200 BCE). Sites of this include Daimabad, Inamgaon, Kayatha, Nagda, Vidisha, Eran, Mandsaur, and Navdatoli (near Maheshwar). Religious practices during this time are indicated by the presence of bull idols, reverence towards trees, snakes, and goddesses, as well as the existence of altars used for fire sacrifices. Before its existence, the Kayatha, Ahar-Banas, and Savalda cultures took place, while the Jorwe culture and the Black and red ware cultures followed in succession.
7. Jorwe: Jorwe was the last site of chalcolithic period in india that emerged in Maharashtra (1400-700 BCE). It is a type of representative site. The culture is characterized by 200 settlements, ranging from large farming villages to small pastoralist camps, indicating a chiefdom-level social structure. Daimabad, the largest settlement, had a mud fort and an elliptical temple with fire pits. Some settlements showed planned layouts with rectangular houses. While most dwellings were small single-room structures, chiefs lived in larger multi-room houses with granaries for storing grain.
Conclusion
We can say that the Chalcolithic Period in India (2800–700 BCE) witnessed diverse cultures such as Ganeshwar, Ahar-Banas, Savalda, Kayatha, Malwa, Eastern, and Jorwe. The Chalcolithic period in india acted as a bridge between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, witnessing advancements in technology, social structures, and religious beliefs. The period featured the simultaneous use of stone and copper tools, bone implements, farming, and mud settlements.
